Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Processes

All living things need a continuous supply of energy to keep their cells functioning normally and to stay healthy. Some organisms, called autotrophs, can produce their own energy using sunlight or other energy sources through processes such as ​photosynthesis. Others, like humans, need to eat food in order to produce energy. However, that is not the type of energy cells use to function. Instead, they use a molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to keep themselves going. The cells, therefore, must have a way to take the chemical energy stored in food and transform it into the ATP they need to function. The process cells undergo to make this change is called cellular respiration. Two Types of Cellular Processes Cellular respiration can be aerobic (meaning with oxygen) or anaerobic (without oxygen). Which route the cells take to create the ATP depends solely on whether or not there is enough oxygen present to undergo aerobic respiration. If there is not enough oxygen present for aerobic respiration, then some organisms will resort to using anaerobic respiration or other anaerobic processes such as fermentation. Aerobic Respiration In order to maximize the amount of ATP made in the process of cellular respiration, oxygen must be present. As eukaryotic species evolved over time, they became more complex with more organs and body parts. It became necessary for cells to be able to create as much ATP as possible to keep these new adaptations running properly. Early Earths atmosphere had very little oxygen. It wasnt until after autotrophs became abundant and released large amounts of oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis that aerobic respiration could evolve. The oxygen allowed each cell to produce many times more ATP than their ancient ancestors that relied on anaerobic respiration. This process happens in the cell organelle called the mitochondria. Anaerobic Processes More primitive are  the processes that many organisms undergo when not enough oxygen is present. The most commonly known anaerobic processes are known as fermentation.  Most anaerobic processes start  out the same way as aerobic respiration, but they stop  partway through the pathway because the oxygen is not available for it to finish the aerobic respiration process, or they join with another molecule that is not oxygen as the final electron acceptor. Fermentation makes many fewer ATP and also releases byproducts of either lactic acid or alcohol, in most cases. Anaerobic processes can happen in the mitochondria or in the cytoplasm of the cell. Lactic acid fermentation is the type of anaerobic process humans undergo if there is a shortage of oxygen. For example, long distance runners experience a buildup of lactic acid in their muscles because they are not taking in enough oxygen to keep up with the demand of energy needed for the exercise. The lactic acid can even cause cramping and soreness in the muscles as time goes on. Alcoholic fermentation does not happen in humans. Yeast is a good example of an organism that undergoes alcoholic fermentation. The same process that goes on in the mitochondria during lactic acid fermentation also happens in alcoholic fermentation. The only difference is that the byproduct of alcoholic fermentation is ethyl alcohol. Alcoholic fermentation is important for the beer industry. Beer makers add yeast which will undergo alcoholic fermentation to add alcohol to the brew. Wine fermentation is also similar and provides the alcohol for the wine. Which is Better? Aerobic respiration is much more efficient at making ATP than anaerobic processes like fermentation. Without oxygen, the Krebs Cycle and the Electron Transport Chain in cellular respiration get backed up and will not work any longer. This forces the cell to undergo the much less efficient fermentation. While aerobic respiration can produce up to 36 ATP, the different types of fermentation  can only have a net gain of 2 ATP. Evolution and Respiration It is thought that the most ancient type of respiration is anaerobic. Since there was little to no oxygen present when the first eukaryotic cells evolved through endosymbiosis, they could only undergo anaerobic respiration or something similar to fermentation. This was not a problem, however, since those first cells were unicellular. Producing only 2 ATP at a time was enough to keep the single cell running. As multicellular eukaryotic organisms began to appear on Earth, the larger and more complex organisms needed to produce more energy. Through natural selection, organisms with more mitochondria that could undergo aerobic respiration survived and reproduced, passing on these favorable adaptations to their offspring. The more ancient versions could no longer keep up with the demand for ATP in the more complex organism and went extinct.

The Transformation Of Housing Discrimination Toward...

The Transformation of Housing Discrimination toward African American One of the American Dreams, home ownership, still inspiriting people to work hard and pursue their dream. In order to achieve a â€Å"color blind† society, the government set many policies to ensure everyone received the equal opportunities when they try to buy a house in the U.S. For example, the Fair Housing Act as a tool to prohibit the discrimination from color, race, gender, religion or family status (Wolf, Heath). However, there are many invisible rules or requirements that cause African American unable to access to home ownership base on the housing policy system. Because of the system, it makes the housing discrimination on African American even bigger. Of course,†¦show more content†¦Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) and Fair Housing Administration (FHA) are the roots to create housing discrimination toward minority especially for African American; they help the mortgage lender to make excuses to deny the loan to African American because they do not meet the requirements. During 1928, there was a huge crisis in stock market and caused many banks close and people faced foreclosure. In order to respond the crisis, president Roosevelt signed the Homeowners Refinancing Act to slow down the rate of housing foreclosures during 1930s (Hillier). This policy helped a hundred million people who was suffering from the depression and facing to lose their houses (Hillier). In addition, it also help many people refinanced their mortgage with low interest rate (Aalbers). The Federal Home Loan Bank Board (FHLBB) used HOLC to establish a program to â€Å"appraise real estate risk levels in 239 cities† (Hillier), which â€Å"produced detailed reports for each city along with a series of now infamous security maps that assigned residential areas a grade from one to four† (Hillier). Because of the neighborhood rating system, â€Å"the HOLC was also instrumental in implementing and institutionalizing redlining practices† (Aalbers) that do not

Power Definitions and Examples in Sociology

Power is a key sociological concept with several meanings and considerable disagreement surrounding them. Lord Acton famously noted, â€Å"Power tends to corrupt; absolute power corrupts absolutely.† While many in power have, indeed, become corrupted and even despotic, others have used their influence to fight for injustice and to aid the oppressed. As some definitions of power show, society as a whole may be the true holders of power. Webers Definition The most common definition comes from Max Weber, who defined it as the ability to control others, events, or resources; to make happen what one wants to happen in spite of obstacles, resistance, or opposition. Power is a thing that is held, coveted, seized, taken away, lost, or stolen, and it is used in what are essentially adversarial relationships involving conflict between those with power and those without. Weber laid out three types of authority from which power is derived: TraditionalCharismaticLegal/Rational Britains Queen Elizabeth would be an example of traditional authority. She holds power because the monarchy has done so for centuries, and she inherited her title. A charismatic authority would be someone who gets their power through their personal abilities to sway people. Such a person can vary widely from a spiritual or ethical leader like Jesus Christ, Gandhi or Martin Luther King Jr. all the way to a tyrant like Adolf Hitler. A legal/rational authority is the type put in place by democratic governments or even what might be seen on a smaller level in the workplace in a relationship between a supervisor and subordinate. Marxs Definition In contrast, Karl Marx used the concept of power in relation to social classes and social systems rather than individuals. He argued that power rests in a social class’s position in the relations of production. Power does not lie in the relationship between individuals, but in domination and subordination of social classes based on the relations of production. According to Marx, only one person or group at a time can have power—the working class or the ruling class. In capitalism, according to Marx, the ruling class wields power over the working class, with the ruling class owning the means of production. Capitalist values, therefore, spill down throughout society. Parsons Definition A third definition comes from Talcott Parsons who argued that power is not a matter of social coercion and domination. Instead, he said, power flows from a social system’s potential to coordinate human activity and resources to accomplish goals. Parsons view is sometimes called the variable-sum approach, as opposed to other views, which are seen as a constant-sum. In Parsons view, power is not constant or fixed but capable of increasing or decreasing. This is best seen in democracies where voters can give power to a politician in one election, then take it away again in the next. Parsons compares voters in this way to depositors at a bank, who can deposit their money but are free to remove it as well. To Parsons, then, power resides in society as a whole, not with a single individual or small group of the powerful elite.

Management Of International Mobility - 1352 Words

This model identifies that management of international mobility entails the need to take a holistic approach to all aspects of the assignment process. (Sparrow, Brewster and Harris, 2004) However, although the model has its advantages in terms of pre-assignment preparation, some of the stages however do bring about some complexities for IM managers as outlined for by (Sparrow, Brewster and Harris, 2004) Selection- the need for precise recruitment and selection is needed; IM managers need to pay close attention to interpersonal and cross-cultural skills in potential assignees. As this will determine how they interact with locals and the subsequent success of the assignment. (Barham Wills, 1992) In practise however, the criteria for the majority of assignment candidates tends to be based on their technical competence and job knowledge. Rather than paired with the previously mentioned skills. This puts a great importance on the practise in use of ‘soft skills’ and ‘hard skills’ mixture for a successful assignment. (Sparrow, Brewster and Harris, 2004; Morley and Flynn, 2003) A MNC has many choices regarding their staffing policies when recruiting for assignments; these come under different forms depending on the company’s preferences in terms of skills. †¢ Ethnocentric approach- Using Home country staff †¢ Polycentric approach- Using Host country staff †¢ Geocentric approach- Using staff from any parts of the world (Pelmutters, 1969) Performance measurement- (Fenwick, 2004)Show MoreRelated1. Abstract . We Have Little Knowledge About The Report,1693 Words   |  7 Pages1. ABSTRACT We have little knowledge about the report, we are discussing about the global talent management (GTM) and the role of the corporate human resource function in multinational corporations. International mobility its new forms, increased global talents hunting are the two perspectives of GTM. GTM discusses and considered primarily about the mechanisms and following the willingness to enter the emerging markets using organisational ability to maintain or managing the talents. These issuesRead MoreThe Hr Trend : Greater ( Job ) Mobility1692 Words   |  7 PagesThe HR Trend – Greater (Job) Mobility Human resources professionals who have sole HR responsibilities for their organization are faced with 10 trends affecting HRM. Thus, planning for and adapting to these changes in the workplace becomes an integral part of the HR professional’s job (10 Workplace Trends that Will Affect HR, n.d.). The video highlights ten (10) trend affecting human resources management, one such being Greater (Job) Mobility. According to the Video, â€Å"You may find that more ofRead MoreThe Hr Trend : Greater ( Job ) Mobility1233 Words   |  5 Pages1. The HR Trend – Greater (Job) Mobility Human resources professionals who have sole HR responsibilities for their organization are faced with 10 trends affecting HRM. Thus, planning for and adapting to these changes in the workplace becomes an integral part of the HR professional’s job. The video highlights ten (10) trend affecting human resources management, one such being Greater (Job) Mobility. According to the Video, â€Å"You may find that more of your employees are willing to take short termRead MoreChallenges And Implications Of Human Resource Management1393 Words   |  6 Pagesresource management is arguably one of the most important departments in every organization. Just like other departments in the organization human resource management faces its share of challenges. One of the major challenges the department has been facing in the recent past is the trend in the mobility of human resources (Caulfield, 2010). 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Americans health Free Essays

string(58) " consumption of the growth hormone when it stays below 1\." Americans are becoming more concerned with their health than ever before. This included regular exercise and as well as the quality of their diet. This has become a current phenomenon in the last few decades which the American public has yet to see before. We will write a custom essay sample on Americans health or any similar topic only for you Order Now Another recent development in the ways in which Americans regard the quality of their diet, is in the quality of the foods that they eat. The push now is for organic foods from livestock which were treated humanely. The injection of hormones into our nation’s cattle, many can say is an example of abuse towards the animals. This may or may not be true. However, hormone injection does offer a myriad of health problems which has caused the European Union as well as the nation of Japan, to be very reluctant in accepting beef imports from the United States in recent years. This has resulted in trade disputes and a sizable trade deficit between America and these two governing bodies. However, it is in the opinion of the EU, Japan and a sizable percentage of the American people, who are weary of scientifically altering one’s cattle in the face of higher profits. What makes hormone injections even more dangerous is the long lasting half life of the hormone injections which the cattle are forced to inject into their body. The hormones do not leave the cattle when it is slaughtered. This alone brings enough danger to the safety of the meat but the hormones continue to exist in the waste of the cow as well as in the sweat secretions of the cattle as well. This allows a further spread of the hormone and thus multiplies and creates environmental as well as health concerns which have only recently been addressed through the demands of a concerned public. However, in the face of such concerns, the beef industry will not be compelled to make the necessary changes unless forced to do so by Congress as there is simply too much money to be made in the eyes of the owners. Since the 1970’s, our nation’s cattle have been injected with growth hormones for the simple reason that such practices yield more profit for the owner. The cow grows larger than the cattle ever would have on his own and does so at a faster pace. This allows the cattle rancher to slaughter the cattle which will yield a larger supply of beef and at a faster pace; thus decreasing the time, cost and effort that the cattle owner would otherwise have to spend on the feeding and housing of the cattle. It is a win/win situation for the cattle owner and as a result, a high majority of the more than 33 million cattle which are slaughtered each year for the human consumption of their meat have within their systems, beef growth hormones. It seems surprising that such a wide spread practice would not have received more attention that it has in the recent past. Except for the high profile libel suit by the cattle owners of America against Oprah Winfrey who raised suspicion about the safety of the beef industry in America back in 2002; a libel suit which was eventually thrown out, there has been little concern by the American public as a whole, concerning the assumed damage which beef hormones cause in our nation’s cattle. This high level of apathy seems to now be a thing of the past as the number of concerned Americans grows exponentially. On January 1, 1989, the European community, now called the European Union, placed a ban on American beef imports where growth hormones were used. By the late 1980’s, this would constitute a very large percentage of America’s beef supply and a blow was sent to America’s beef industry. However much this decision riled the beef industry in America, such decisions were not without reason. Europe had become fearful of the growth hormone, diethylstilbestrol, the hormone used in making cattle grow past their normal size, since the 1980’s. This hormone was also seen in baby foods and there were more than a number of tragic cases in which small children were subject to brain defects from the injection of their baby food. It was because of growing fears against the hormone, as well as actual cases of Europeans that had gotten sick, that the ban was put in place. The ban was not geared only towards American but all countries in the world where Europe got their meat from. The ban was widespread and universal. Europe then, as well as now, has expressed their overwhelming preference for hormone free meat. Other countries have complied with the wish but America still continues to treat a large majority of its cattle with growth hormone in the desire to increase profits. These decisions are contrary to what the Federal Food and Drug Administration, in alliance with the US Department of Agriculture, have decided that beef that are treated with this hormone create no danger in those that eat it. This may be from the motivation of profits more than the safety of the cattle as well as the people who eat it. Cattle which are treated with this growth hormone, can expect to reach its targeted weight of 1,000 lbs 21 days sooner than cattle which are not treated with the hormone. Also, the relatively low cost of the hormone treatment; $1 per implant, yields a cost of more than $100 a head. This is sought in what is often times, a relatively unstable industry. There is a great deal of money to be made or lost with this decision and the United States has continued to fight the decisions by the EU and Japan over what they see to be blatant examples of unfair trade practices. The United States points to a 1988 report by the World Health Organization which states that human consumption of the growth hormone when it stays below 1. You read "Americans health" in category "Papers" 4 and 2. 1 micro kilograms provides no safety scare for the people who consume the meat. What was not shown by the United States was the fact that in the nearly twenty years since this report was published, the among of growth hormones which are injected into the cattle now exceed these paltry amounts as in America, the belief seems to be: more is better. Cattle are getting larger and larger every few years. The reason for this is overwhelm from growth hormones as the improved quality of the foods which the cattle now feed on, would never be able to yield such dramatic results as what is currently being seen in America’s cattle. Specifically, growth hormones have been thought to create the most damage in women and in small girls. Cancer can develop in the breasts as well as colon and pancreas. Also, â€Å"the growth hormone can cause girls to reach puberty at a faster clip than what is natural. † This is a key theme to the growth hormone as it speeds up the natural processes of the body and wreaks havoc on the internal organs of those who are treated with the hormone. It is believed that the levels of growth hormone which the cattle injects, does not completely pass from the meet to the individual and that the hormone is not meant for direct human consumption. What serves as the most dangerous aspect of this, are the occurrences when the hormone is not kept in the strict environment in which it was designed. When the growth hormone passes at a higher concentrated level than what is advised, either through human error, the beef industry being ignorant as to the modes of transportation that the hormone can take, or in the differences in the rate at which the cattle injects the hormone, adverse reactions will and have occurred. There are more than just the immediate health concerns which need to be examined. The strong half life of these hormones add to the environmental concerns which now need to be addressed, A large portion of the hormone passes through the feces of the cow and ends up in the environment and through the normal ecological system, can easily end up in other foods as well as the drinking water of the public. This could create a very large problem, not only for the cattle but also those who have the misfortune of consuming the water. It has been reported that cattle that have drunk downstream from cattle that have been treated with growth hormone have been underweight and have been subjective to a high level of health concerns and problems. In Central Illinois, this occurred but was not caught in time by the cattle rancher at the time. The cow was slaughtered with a high level of growth hormone within his body and the meat, officials now believe, was highly tainted and not only posed a serious threat to those who ate the meat, but in reality, caused a number of very sick individuals who took weeks to recover from their ailments. As it is very hard to pinpoint where the beef went, the FDA was able to nearly pinpoint where the beef was consumed and can only point out that such a high level of coincidence is not plausible. It is the mismanagement of this hormone which is creating concern in many of the country’s scientists and environmentalists. â€Å"We said that we would not be surprised if large levels of these hormones showed up in the nation’s drinking supply. † This, according to John McClain, director for the Centers of Biological Research states recently. Dr. McClain also states that he estimates that more than thirteen tons of the hormone DES is released into the nation’s drinking water every year. Not only does he state that such amounts will create an adverse living environment among the wildlife in the area, but for the people as well who have the misfortune of consuming the water as well. The concerns continue to mount as the United States and Canada stubbornly insist that there is no reason for alarm and that their cattle will continue to be fed this growth hormone. Scientists for the beef industry continue to claim that either the evidence is inconclusive or that no danger is presented to the general population as the levels of hormone which s used to treat the cattle is so minute as never to be able to cause harm of any kind. â€Å"The growth hormone which is used to treat our nation’s cattle, poses no threat to the environment or the people whom it comes in contact with. Our nation’s beef supply is safe to eat. † Although not to the same degree, such statements are reminiscent to the tobacco’s responses in the 1970’s and 1980’s concerning the growing concern over the safety of smoking cigarettes. Such statements were accepted by the general public when there did not exist, enough evidence to refute such statements but when it became clear that smoking caused cancer and other such diseases, such statements were no longer accepted. Many in the scientific community believe that the beef industry is going to suffer a similar fate if they continue to refute the concerns of the scientific community over the human consumption and environmental reactions when coming in contact with these growth hormones. Another concern is the safety of the milk which comes directly from cattle; many of whom are being treated with the growth hormone. A larger cow will create a higher yield of milk for its owner; thus increasing profits. The growth hormone BHG is often used to increase milk production in cows. However, the FDA’s decision in 1993 to allow for the treatment of cows with this hormone is outdated. This is a common theme which can be seen in much of the American research concerning the safety of growth hormones. The scientific research, or simply an expression of concern within the European Union, is relatively recent whereas the American research community is not being allowed to conduct the proper number of tests on the effects of the growth hormone. Either that or their findings are being refuted. There have been a number of concerns by large bodies of farmers and cattle growers in such situations. In 1994, the Wisconsin Farmers Union started a national hotline for concerned dairy farmers who were concerned over the quality of their milk from cows who had been subjected to the growth hormone. One New York dairy farmer was forced to replace 135 out of his entire herd of 200 cows because the growth hormone that he fed his cows, produced milk that was tainted. The growth hormone also led to hoof disease as well as open sores and eternal bleeding on more than a few of his cows. This should lead to a third tier of concern over the treatment of cattle with the growth hormone. Not only does the hormone present dangers to the population which consumes the meat and the environment which absorbs the waste products of the cattle, but the cattle itself. In the same way that steroids and other human growth hormones present stronger and faster athletes, only to yield a number of health concerns in the future, so too is the reaction of cattle who are subjective to the hormone. Usually, this is not a problem for cattle which is to be slaughtered by the end of the month as the hormone usually is not given enough time to cause damage in the cattle. However, cows which are used primarily for the milk that they give and thus are allowed to live, this increases the chances that adverse reactions within the cow will show itself within the cow. This is to be expected as â€Å"the growth hormones which are given to cows, creates an unnatural environment for the cow and as a result, the animal will often times react adversely and diseases will spread. † Also, cows who are forced to yield an unnatural amount of milk; a level which their bodies were not meant to provide, often times leaves the cow malnourished and sickly from an over stimulation of the cow’s body. This will lead to a shorter life span for these cows which are used to yield milk to its owner. A burn out effect for the cow will follow and whether the meat is fit for human consumption or not, the cow will simply be destroyed as his useful life on earth has been prematurely cut short through science and in the face of higher profits. Despite the evidence that the treatment of growth hormones creates in cows and in the people who eat and drink the milk and meat which these cattle provide, the FDA and other government sponsored scientific communities have stubbornly insisted that there is no adverse reactions on any level, to the consuming of the byproducts of cattle that have been previously treated with this growth hormone. Not only would the FDA be reluctant to place any restrictions or at least warning labels on such beef, they prohibited dairies from making such claims on their own products or in the press. There seemed to be a moratorium on the issue. However, the dates which these FDA rulings are more than ten years in the past as there has been a severe shortage of current government supported evidence from the United States to show to findings to the claims that growth hormones in our nation’s beef supply, results in the negative health effects which the rest of the developed world believes to be the case. The common use of growth hormones has resulted in a number of differences. According to Science News, more than 80% of US feedlots inject cattle with growth hormones and that traces of the growth hormone were still seen in the typical cow, more than 195 days after the initial treatment. This is important especially with cows which are used primarily for milk as the cow’s milk supply can be tainted for more than six months from a single treatment. Also, in what seems to be the reason behind the treatment of cows with growth hormones; in 1950, the typical cow produced more than 5300 pounds of milk a year. Today, a cow which has been treated with growth hormones, can expect to yield an amazing 18,000 pounds of milk a year. However, what advantages are given when many believe that this milk is tainted? This only increased the chances that the American consumer will be adversely affected by drinking what the FDS tells him to be safe and good for the body. There is a major difference in the FDA and USDA’s take on the apparent health concerns over the treatment of the nation’s cattle being subjected to growth hormones in order to increase production of their meat and milk, as opposed to what the rest of the world is stating. This is a problem which must be addressed. There is a great deal of money to be made or lost as well as the entire way of life for thousands of the nation’s cattle ranchers and others who are involved in getting the meat to our tables. This comes from the sheer number of tons of beef which Americans consume on a yearly basis as well as the fact that the alternative which is offered in our nation’s supermarkets, often times costs more than twice the price of beef which has been subjected with growth hormones. Coupled with this fact, the claims made by the Food and Drug Administration which states that the consumption of growth hormones is safe; many people will believe this to be the case and will blindly continue their previous eating habits with no concern for what the rest of the world claims to be the dangers of eating such meats. The evidence which the FDA and other government sponsored organizations are more than ten years old and in some cases, are reaching twenty years old whereas the scientific research which has compelled the European Union as well as Japan to implement bans on the trade of US beef, is much more recent. This fact alone should at least compel Americans to ask the question: â€Å"How safe is the meat and milk which comes from cows who are treated with growth hormones. † There is a push for more organic foods as well since many believe that the injection of hormones in not only beef but also our nation’s fruits and vegetables in order to grow gigantic and unnatural tomatoes and potatoes, can only create further health concerns as it is believed that the consumer is consuming a higher percentage of chemicals and hormones than the natural elements of these fruits and vegetables which people seek to help them maintain a healthy lifestyle. Growth hormones affect our nation’s beef supply in a number of different ways. First, it affects the life and health of the cow, affects the environment and the wildlife and fish through the fact that the hormone can be introduced to the environment though the feces of the animal as well as the resilient characteristics of the hormone itself, as well as affect the milk which the cow yields to the American public. As a result, major governing bodies in the world have placed a ban on beef, not only from America but in numerous parts of the world, where the cattle have been subject to growth hormones. It would behoove the entire American public to stress the importance of up to date scientific research in order to conclude that measures need to be put in place which will forever ensure that the food which we eat, is safe; safe not only for us but for the environment. WORKS CITED Carlson, Laurie An Informal Social History. New York: Ivan Dee Publisher 2001 Meinkle, James Beef Hormones Contributes to Mad Cow Disease London: The Guardian July 5, 1998 Narlikar, Armita The World Trade Organization London: Oxford 2005 Nelson, Gerald Genetically Modified Organisms in Agriculture New York: Academic Press. 2004 Naloff, Janet. Hormones: Here’s the Beef www. sciencenews. org Downloaded July 28, 2007 Penske, James. Beef Hormones Believed to Contribute to Health Concerns Charleston Times Courier June 8, 2005 www. FDA. gov United States Food and Drug Administration Downloaded July 27, 2007 www. USDA. gov United States Department of Agriculture How to cite Americans health, Papers

Kosovo Essay Example For Students

Kosovo Essay Mi deseo es que las Naciones Unidas, impulsadas tras la posguerra, tengan xito y prosperen. Y mi esperanza es que la Declaracin de los Derechos Humanos, cuyo aniversario celebramos, no se limite al deseo de dnde la humanidad debiera llegar, sino que gradualmente se convierta en una realidad en todas las naciones. El conflicto de Kosovo puede encontrar sus races a mediados del siglo XIV, cuando el Imperio Otomano inici la conquista de los Balcanes, y en 1389 venci a las fuerzas serbias en la batalla de Kosovo. Se inici entonces un perodo de dominacin otomana, de 489 aos de duracin. En los siglos XIV y XV se produjeron las primeras emigraciones de Serbia y Bosnia hacia las regiones eslavas vecinas, hasta Rusia. Toda Macedonia entr en el Imperio Otomano en 1395. Entre los siglos XVI y XVIII, los territorios de Yugoslavia se repartieron entre el Imperio Otomano (Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro y Macedonia), los Habsburgo (Croacia, Eslovenia, Eslavonia, parte de Dalmacia y Voivodina) y la Repblica Veneciana (Istria y Dalmacia). Despus que fuera aplastada la insurreccin de 1690 en la vieja Serbia, unas 70 mil personas se refugiaron en territorios de los Habsburgo. El Imperio Otomano traslad a musulmanes albaneses a los territorios abandonados (Kosovo y Metohija). A principios del siglo XX c ontinuaron los conflictos: la resistencia serbia al Imperio austro hngaro provoc el asesinato del archiduque Francisco Fernando de Austria, hecho que marc el inicio de la Primera Guerra Mundial. Al final de la conflagracin que determin la cada del imperio austro hngaro, se fund el reino de los serbios, croatas y eslovenos, que comprenda a Serbia, Montenegro, Eslovenia, Croacia, Eslavonia, Bosnia y Herzegovina. En 1929, el reino se unifica bajo el nombre de Yugoslavia (tierra de los eslavos del sur), cuyo gobierno, controlado por los serbios, se convirti en una dictadura. La poltica nacionalista del rgimen gener un fuerte movimiento antiserbio entre croatas y otras minoras tnicas, que condujo al asesinato del rey Karagueorgevitch, en Marsella, en 1934. En este perodo los albaneses pierden todos los derechos colectivos y son severamente reprimidos por los serbios. En el transcurso de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Kosovo es incorporada a Albania que se transforma en una provincia italiana. Los serbios sufren una masacre por parte de los albaneses que a su vez son masacrados por los partisanos comunistas. Finalmente, en 1945, la monarqua es abolida, y Yugoslavia se proclama una repblica popular federal, integrada por seis repblicas (Eslovenia y Croacia al noroeste; Serbia, al este; Bosnia Herzegovina y Montenegro al centro; Macedonia al sur), dos provincias autnomas (Voivodina y Kosovo, en el noreste y el sudoeste de Serbia, respectivamente). El lder de la repblica, Josip Broz, ms conocido como Tito, mantuvo una fuerte represin policial contra la poblacin, consciente de las tensiones intertnicas y del fuerte declive socioeconmico entre el norte industrializado y el sur subdesarrollado dentro de la vieja Yugoslavia.Hacia la dcada de los aos 70, Kosovo reclama el estatuto de repblica, pero el nico beneficio que obtiene es una extensin de su autonoma . Como consecuencia, los conflictos tnicos se agudizan, y cobra fuerza el movimiento separatista albans en la provincia. Una dcada ms tarde estallaron nuevamente los disturbios. El gobierno federal acus a fuerzas nacionalistas y separatistas extremistas, instigadas desde el extranjero, de buscar la secesin de Kosovo de Serbia y de Yugoslavia. Un gran nmero de habitantes serbios y montenegrinos abandonaron la regin. La represin de las rebeliones en Kosovo produjo muertos y heridos, mutuas reclamaciones diplomticas de Belgrado y Tirana, as como la renuncia, en marzo de 1990, del jefe de gobierno de Kosovo, Jusuf Zejnullahu. Hubo a su vez tensiones en otras repblicas, debido al crecimiento de grupos activistas musulmanes y catlicos. En medio de las presiones sociales derivadas de la situacin econmica y de la disolucin estatal, se enfrentaron dos concepciones: por un lado, la de una descentralizacin que evitara a las regiones ms ricas tener que financiar el desarrollo de las ms pobres, defendida por el comunista renovador Milan Kucan, presidente de Eslovenia; y por otro lado, la de reforzar el poder central y profundizar la solidaridad en el interior de la federacin, que propugnaba el presidente serbio y lder del Partido Socialista de Serbia (ex Liga Comunista de Serbia), Slobodan Milosevic. En el territorio que aun se defina como Yugoslavia, durante 1992, el presidente serbio, Milosevic, fortaleci su posicin, al pasar a retiro a 70 generales y almirantes de las fuerzas armadas federales no incondicionales a su liderazgo. Logr adems, la adhesin de Montenegro a su plan de establecer una Yugoslavia unificada con centro en Belgrado, a travs de un plebiscito en esta repblica, que fue boicoteado por la oposicin. La intransigencia del gobierno serbio se manifest en Kosovo, donde cualquier intento de independencia fue reprimido en el marco de una poltica de aniquilacin cultural. Serbia no reconoce el parlamento y el gobierno de la provincia, en funciones desde el 24 de mayo de 1992. Durante 1993 la polica serbia disolvi violentamente una reunin en memoria de albaneses muertos, arrest varios lderes partidarios y cerr la Academia de Ciencias de Kosovo. El presidente yugoslavo jug un importante papel en el proceso de paz de Bosnia Herzegovina en 1995. El distanciamiento poltico entre Yugoslavia y los lderes serbo bosnios Radovan Karadzic y Ratko Mladic difera con la actitud adoptada en el plano militar. La sangrienta conquista de Srebrenica y Zepa, en julio, por parte de los serbo bosnios, contribuy a la marginacin practicada por Milosevic de la oposicin. Belgrado no dej de abastecer de armamento y efectivos a la Repblica serbia de Krajina, en Croacia, durante la primera mitad del ao. Pero Yugoslavia no intervino cuando los croatas invadieron los territorios de Krajina, en agosto. Algunos refugiados serbios fueron autorizados a ingresar a Yugoslavia y alojados en la provincia de Kosovo, con poblacin mayoritariamente albanesa, o en las casas de hngaros y croatas que haban sido expulsados de Vojvodina. Como consecuencia de este hecho, en 1996 entr en accin por primera vez el Ejrcito de Liberacin de Kosovo (Ushtria Clirimtare E Kosoves), el cual asumi responsabilidades por una serie de actos de sabotaje cometidos contra las estaciones de polica y sus integrantes.Durante 1998, el conflicto declarado entre la fuerza militar y policial serbia y la fuerza albano kosovar, result en la muerte de ms de 1500 albaneses, y forz a ms de 400.000 personas a abandonar sus hogares. La comunidad internacional tom plena conciencia del agravamiento del conflicto, las consecuencias humanitarias y el peligro de su expansin a otras regiones. Diferencias fundamentales entre serbios y albanesesLo nico que comparten los serbios y los albaneses que viven en Kosovo es la pequea porcin de tierra que ocupan. Hablan lenguas diferentes, tienen distintas creencias religiosas y difieren en sus versiones de la historia. Los kosovares de origen albans hablan una lengua indoeuropea tan antigua como el latn, y tan dif erente en vocabulario y gramtica del serbio como pueden serlo el italiano del ruso. Los serbios hablan una lengua eslava que se parece al blgaro y al ruso. La mayora de los albano kosovares son musulmanes, descendientes de catlicos romanos y cristianos ortodoxos que se convirtieron al Islam durante los 500 aos de gobierno de los turcos otomanos. Los serbios son ortodoxos acrrimos, y siguen tradiciones cristianas semejantes a las de los rusos, griegos y blgaros. La mayora de los kosovares de origen albans, de religin musulmana, creen que son descendientes de los ilirios, una tribu de los Balcanes que habit la regin en la antigedad. Los serbios consideran a Kosovo como la cuna de su civilizacin. Una vez sede de la iglesia ortodoxa serbia, la provincia sigue albergando numerosos monasterios ortodoxos. La derrota del ejrcito serbio en Kosovo a manos de los turcos en 1389 forma parte de la historia de este pueblo. Los serbios recuperaron Kosovo en 1912 durante la Primera Guerra Balcnica, cuando Serbia, Montenegro, Grecia y Bulgaria derrotaron a los turcos otomanos y pusieron fin a ms de 500 aos de dominacin turca. Antes de que comenzaran los ataques areos de la OTAN, los kosovares de origen albans constituan aproximadamente el 90 por ciento de los 2 millones de habitantes que pueblan esta provincia de Serbia. Antes de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, los serbios eran aproximadamente la mitad de la poblacin de Kosovo. Pero el alto ndice de natalidad entre los albaneses y el continuo xodo de serbios procedentes de la provincia rural, hacia zonas de Serbia ms urbanas y prsperas caus la disminucin del nmero de este grupo. En 1974, el lder yugoslavo Josip Broz concedi a Kosovo la autonoma y su propio voto en el Consejo federal yugoslavo, que slo la diferenciaba de una repblica en el nombre. Aos ms tarde, el entonces presidente de Serbia, Slobodan Milosevic, revoc esta situacin de autonoma en Kosovo e instituy un gobierno militar. La sana poltica ensea que vale ms ganar a los hombres con la buena fe, que dominarlos con las armas. Si bien las razones principales del conflicto en Kosovo datan de tiempo atrs, la emergencia del Ejrcito de Liberacin de Kosovo, en 1996, se convirti en el factor determinante que desemboc en la guerra. Un ao ms tarde, el ejrcito albans tom un rol ms activo frente la continua opresin que reciban de parte de los serbios. Dicho rol se vio manifestado a travs de la matanza de poblacin serbia, dentro de la cual, los policas fueron los ms golpeados. Eventualmente, el ELK pudo establecer cierto control sobre determinadas reas de la provincia de Kosovo, pero, en 1998, el presidente yugoslavo Milosevic envi tropas serbias que reconquistaron dichas reas. La violencia auspiciada por el gobierno yugoslavo, en contra de la poblacin albanesa, se constituy en el desencadenante de la ira de los kosovares, marcando as un punto clave en el agravamiento del conflicto. Es en este momento en que entra en juego la OTAN, la que, hasta la fecha, jams h aba intervenido en un conflicto entre un Estado soberano y sus ciudadanos. La Organizacin justific su actuacin, en la medida en que sostena que su responsabilidad era la de proteger a los seres humanos de los crmenes contra la humanidad. A principios de 1999 comenzaron en Rambouillet las negociaciones de paz entre kosovares de origen albans y serbios, quienes se negaron a considerar el despliegue de una fuerza de paz dirigida por la OTAN en Kosovo. El diplomtico norteamericano Holbrooke intent llegar a un acuerdo de paz de ltima hora, pero el parlamento serbio rechaz las exigencias occidentales. Como consecuencia inmediata, el Secretario General de la OTAN, Javier Solana, autoriz a los comandantes militares a lanzar ataques areos. El 24 de marzo la OTAN comienza su campaa de ataques areos en Yugoslavia, con la intencin de destruir la maquinaria de guerra serbia, y forzar el cumplimiento del acuerdo internacional de paz, elaborado en Rambouillet, Francia. El primer contingente de ref ugiados llega a Albania a fines de mes. Posterior a ello, la OTAN comienza la segunda fase de su campaa, apuntando directamente a las fuerzas armadas de Yugoslavia, respaldada por lderes de occidente que acusan al presidente yugoslavo de practicar genocidio. Si bien por un lado las fuerzas aliadas ponen en marcha una operacin de aire y tierra para proveer de comida, medicinas y tiendas de campaa, a Albania y Macedonia, accidentalmente bombardean dos caravanas de refugiados, que estaban siendo escoltados a la frontera por policas serbios. En este momento el xodo de los kosovares se intensifica, debido principalmente a que segn las Naciones Unidas las tropas serbias cometen una de las peores masacres de civiles conocidas hasta la fecha. A semejanza de la estrategia utilizada por los nazis en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, las tropas serbias separaron en el pueblo de Meja a los hombres de 18 a 65 aos de sus familias, para luego asesinarlos. A este respecto, el secretario general de las Naciones Unidas, Kofi Annan, advirti que el genocidio contra los kosovares de origen albans, no quedara impune. A principios del mes el primer grupo de refugiados tnicamente albaneses llega a los Estados Unidos. Antes y durante el transcurso de los ataques areos, cientos de miles de kosovares abandonaron sus hogares; unos forzados por tropas serbias, y otros por temor. El resultado fue una crisis masiva de refugiados que afect principalmente a los pases vecinos, Albania y Macedonia. Sin embargo, la misma se vio mitigada cuando varios pases oc cidentales ofrecieron refugio a unos 860.000 albaneses, que haban dejado Kosovo hasta ese momento.En lo que respecta a los ataques areos llevados adelante por la OTAN, los mismos continuaron, e incluso, se intensificaron. Sin embargo, a pesar de la alta tecnologa utilizada provista en su gran mayora por Estados Unidos se sucedieron numerosos errores contra objetivos no deseados. Entre los mismos podemos destacar: el bombardeo a la embajada china en Belgrado, debido a que los mapas en poder de la OTAN no estaban actualizados; la muerte de ms de 80 albaneses, cuando la Organizacin pens que estaba bombardeando un puesto militar serbio; y finalmente, la destruccin de equipo blico perteneciente al ELK. Rusia por su parte, si bien sostiene su postura de no participar directamente en el conflicto, advierte a la OTAN del riesgo de una nueva guerra europea, o incluso mundial, si los aliados intentan apoderarse de Yugoslavia y convertirlo en su protectorado. El 27 de mayo, el Tribunal Internacional para crmenes de Guerra de las Naciones Unidas, acus formalmente a Milosevic y otros cuatro oficiales yugoslavos por crmenes contra la humanidad. Fueron acusados por su participacin en la deportacin de 740.000 albaneses tnicos de Kosovo, as como de la muerte de ms de 340 personas identificadas. La OTAN, a este respecto, teme que la denuncia pueda complicar el proceso de negociacin para llegar a un plan de paz. Milosevic y el parlamento serbio aceptan la propuesta de paz presentada por los representantes de Rusia, la Unin Europea y los Estados Unidos. Das despus de la misma, el 9 de junio, Yugoslavia y las naciones occidentales firman un tratado formal por el cual se establece el retiro de las tropas serbias de Kosovo, y la consecuente finalizacin de la campaa area de la OTAN.Se establece tambin una fuerza internacional para el mantenimiento de la paz, encabezada por la OTAN, cuyo objetivo es el de monitorear el regreso de los refugiados a la provincia. El Consejo de Seguridad de las Naciones Unidas aprueba entonces una resolucin, por la cual autoriza el plan de paz en Kosovo, por una votacin de 14 votos a favor y 0 en contra, en la que China es la nica abstencin. Cabe destacar que el rol de Rusia en la negociacin contina siendo ambiguo. Punto de vista de la OTAN y Estados UnidosCon respecto a la visin que la OTAN y los Estados Unidos tienen acerca de la contienda en Kosovo, procuraremos desarrollarla en conjunto, ya que consideramos que la nacin norteamericana cumple un fuerte liderazgo dentro de la Organizacin. De acuerdo a la OTAN, el gobernante yugoslavo Milosevic est claramente realizando una limpieza tnica, bajo la excusa de que la poblacin albanesa kosovar atenta contra la idea de una Yugoslavia unida. Bajo esta perspectiva, cuando el lder comenz esta grotesca campaa de expulsin permanente, se perfilaban claramente tres escenarios:a)la expulsin permanente de todos los albaneses de Kosovo y la erradicacin del Ejrcito de Liberacin de Kosovo, conjuntamente con la insercin del control serbio sobre la provincia. b)la posibilidad de que la OTAN tomara control sobre la provincia de Kosovo, sin derrocar el gobierno de Belgrado. c)la probabilidad de que la OTAN atacara la repblica por el norte, y lo expulsara, estableciendo un gobierno transitorio bajo la supervisin internacional, dando lugar entonces a elecciones democrticas. Estados Unidos plantea que, si bien Milosevic no esperaba un enfrentamiento armado con las tropas de la OTAN, estaba preparado para esa eventualidad. El comienzo de la campaa area contra Milosevic, el 24 de marzo de 1999, le otorg a ste el pretexto para desatar su propia guerra contra la provincia separatista. The Bay Of Pigs Invasion EssayLa OTAN se ampara en el acuerdo de Dayton de noviembre de 1995 en el que Belgrado se compromete tanto a respetar los derechos humanos, como a aceptar monitores internacionales y una fuerza de Implementacin (IFOR) de la OTAN, al servicio de la ONU. Aqu se le da la autoridad al Consejo de Seguridad para implementar dicho acuerdo de paz. A pesar de esto la intervencin de la OTAN constituye una violacin al Derecho Internacional Pblico y al balance de poderes que la Carta de las Naciones Unidas pretende establecer. Ello queda esclarecido en el Artculo 24.1 de la Carta: los miembros de las Naciones Unidas le confieren al Consejo de Seguridad la responsabilidad primaria para el mantenimiento de la paz y seguridad internacional. Aqu se le transfiere decidir al Consejo de Seguridad los elementos que requieren la paz y seguridad internacional, obteniendo as poder de decisin suprema en cuanto a eso se trata. En este caso, se ha contradecido el espritu de la Carta y las resoluciones del Consejo. Pero no solamente la OTAN viola la Carta de las Naciones Unidas sino que viola el Tratado del Atlntico Norte en su Artculo 3 donde se evoca a la capacidad colectiva de resistir un ataque armado, y el Artculo 5 donde se afirma su capacidad de defensiva colectiva. Se ampara en el Artculo 51 de la Carta donde se reconoce el derecho a repeler cualquier agresin y a la autodefensa. Como ejemplo de ello, podemos destacar que Yugoslavia no ha atacado a ningn miembro de la OTAN ni a ningn otro Estado en la regin. Todo el conflicto ocurre dentro de la territorialidad de su propio Estado por lo que el nico organismo a nivel global que tiene la responsabilidad de velar por el mantenimiento de la paz y la seguridad internacional es el Consejo de Seguridad. La intervencin de la OTAN constituye un mal precedente para el Derecho Internacional Pblico y para la paz y estabilidad global, debido a que se est obviando el proceso establecido y la autoridad del Consejo de Seguridad. Dicha autoridad le permite actuar en situaciones que ameriten la intervencin de alguna fuerza internacional para imponer el orden en situaciones conflictivas. La razn por la que la OTAN obvi el procedimiento establecido es porque saba que no iba a contar el respaldo de dos de sus miembros permanentes: la Federacin Rusa y la Repblica Popular China. Los mismos no iban a permitir una intervencin de la OTAN en medio de la frontera entre Occidente y Oriente. Hay quienes consideran que la intervencin de la OTAN es debida a intereses especficos, y que no es movida por la caridad y las buenas intenciones de sus miembros. En esta intervencin la causa real es la del dominio poltico y de extensin de influencias en el plano global. Sostienen por otra parte que la OTAN, la UE y sobre todo EE.UU. quieren acabar con cualquier vestigio de Rusia en el mundo para consolidar un bloque unipolar hegemnico: el bloque Occidental. Luego de la intervencin realizada por fuerzas internacionales, al da de hoy el conflicto de Kosovo parece haber encontrado una solucin momentnea. El mayor problema con el que se debe lidiar actualmente, es el de la situacin de los refugiados albano kosovares al regresar a sus hogares. Principalmente, considerando la fragilidad de sus relaciones con los serbios, la vuelta a casa podra estar seguida por el estallido de una guerra civil. Para evitar posteriores conflictos, existen al menos tericamente una serie de opciones para llegar a una solucin permanente y as prevenir una catstrofe como la sucedida:Mejoramiento de la situacin de los Derechos HumanosStatus equitativo dentro de la Federacin YugoslavaEl Status Quo es claramente inestable y no puede perdurar en el corto plazo. Dada la ausencia de adelantos reales hacia un acuerdo para la crisis de Kosovo, es muy importante apoyar a los lderes de la provincia que estn a favor de una resistencia pacfica ms activa, o de lo contrario, la violencia contra las fuerzas de seguridad serbias aumentar. En el largo plazo, el Status Quo puede ser demasiado costoso para el gobierno serbio, ya sea por razones polticas o econmicas. El peso financiero de mantener miles de fuerzas activas y reservas en Kosovo es enorme; adems, las sanciones impuestas desde el exterior son destructivas para la economa serbia. A ello se le suma que la minora serbia en Kosovo puede culpar al liderazgo serbio como el causante de la situacin insegura y hostil en la que estn viviendo. Mejoramiento de la situacin de los Derechos HumanosLa solucin menos costosa para las autoridades serbias puede ser la de mantener el arreglo poltico vigente entre Serbia y Kosovo, pero con mejoras en las condiciones de los Derechos Humanos. Tal solucin debera incluir principalmente las siguientes medidas: la finalizacin de la represin policaca, dejar en libertad a los prisioneros polticos, reemplear a los albaneses kosovares con puestos pblicos, reintegrar los sistemas de salud y educacin de Kosovo, y permitir el ingreso a agencias de monitoreo internacional, ONGs y los medios para operar dentro de Kosovo. Mientras que en el presente esta opcin es refutada por el gobierno serbio, existen otros partidos polticos que s la aceptaran. La Alianza Cvica de Serbia, liderada por Vesna Pesic, ha indicado que est a favor de la existencia de la actual estructura federal de Yugoslavia, que implica la igualdad de sus unidades federales, Serbia y Montenegro, y la de sus habitantes. Aunque se sientan que son serbios, montenegrinos, o que pertenecen a otros grupos tnicos nacionales. Dentro de este marco, la ACS otorgara la autonoma regional, as como la igualdad de derechos para todos los ciudadanos. Aunque esta opcin reduce los riesgos de violencia, en efecto no llevara a ms de una serie de medidas para aumentar la confianza de parte de Serbia, no siendo un fin a largo plazo para la cuestin de Kosovo en lo que respecta a su status constitucional. Reconociendo este dilema, algunos albano kosovares han indicado que, si bien el mejoramiento de la situacin de los Derechos Humanos no definira el status constitucional de la provincia, podra contribuir como plataforma inicial para un dilogo ms abierto entre serbios y albaneses. Existe una variedad de posibles soluciones que giran en torno a la constitucin yugoslava de 1974, que garantizaban a las provincias autnomas de Kosovo y Vojvodina un status similar al de las repblicas de la antigua Yugoslavia. Bajo esta constitucin, Kosovo y Vojvodina recibieron el derecho a establecer su propia constitucin, Poder Legislativo, y autonoma financiera. A los cuerpos ejecutivo, legislativo y judicial, se les proporcion a su vez el mismo status que a las otras repblicas. Las provincias autnomas estaban directamente representadas en el Parlamento federal, Corte constitucional y Presidencia. Cualquier alteracin en lo que respecta a las fronteras o territorios de estas provincias, requera el consentimiento de sus representantes.La mayora de los albaneses kosovares creen que el nivel de autonoma previo, aunque ya no suficiente para una solucin permanente, debera ser restaurado y constituir el punto de partida para las negociaciones hacia un nuevo acuerdo. Status equitativo dentro de la Federacin YugoslavaUn paso mucho ms audaz sera el de proveer a Kosovo, y tal vez a Vojvodina, con un status dentro de Yugoslavia igual al de Montenegro y Serbia. Esta opcin que mantiene las fronteras externas de Yugoslavia intactas, parecera ser la solucin ms equitativa y menos irreal. Entre los temas importantes que deberan ser agendados, resulta relevante considerar cual sera la situacin de la minora serbia en Kosovo, si a la provincia se le brindara el derecho a la secesin. A pesar del pedido objetivo para la creacin de una nueva Federacin Yugoslava, Serbia estara extremadamente reticente a abandonar su superioridad federal salvo que se lleve a cabo una intervencin por parte de la comunidad internacional. La resistencia de Montenegro podra esperarse, ya que esta provincia tambin puede mostrarse reticente a compartir el poder con una unidad federal donde intervengan albaneses. Los albano kosovares por su parte, estn preocupados porque, aunque siendo u na repblica yugoslava, podran estar dominados por una mayora serbia. Concretamente, los albano kosovares parecen preferir la abolicin de cualquier vestigio del viejo sistema federal yugoslavo, basando los nuevos arreglos de acuerdo a la nueva realidad poltica. Esta opcin garantizara a Kosovo la independencia a cambio de que la provincia reorganice sus fronteras. Serbia, mantendra el control sobre las reas habitadas por serbios en el norte de Kosovo, y sobre los sitios de ms importancia histrica y/o religiosa. Los albano kosovares por lo tanto, no estarn a favor de ceder la parte del territorio con mayor riqueza y seguramente lucharn contra la particin. Sumado a ello podra darse la situacin inversa, en la que los albaneses podran exigirle a Serbia la particin de todas las provincias limtrofes con Kosovo, que cuenten con una mayora albanesa viviendo en sus fronteras. Una dificultad adicional sera la definicin de trminos bajo los cuales se estableceran las nuevas fronteras. La eleccin de un estndar tnico, religioso, geogrfico o histrico, seguro causar desacuerdos ms profundos. Con el precedente del establecimiento de fronteras definidas a partir de las etnias el caso de Bosnia la comunidad internacional ha decidido no llevar adelante la misma decisin. sta es la propuesta ms representativa del pueblo albans: la independencia para la Repblica de Kosova. Algunos albano kosovares han propuesto que una vez que Kosovo tenga el status de independiente, debera unirse con Albania. El gobierno serbio ha declarado que actuara por medios militares para evitar la secesin de Kosovo. Dada su estructura econmica, Kosovo podra tener problemas en la supervivencia como un Estado independiente, especialmente si Serbia retiene el control sobre parte del norte de su territorio. Aunque se le concedan los derechos a la provincia, la independencia puede llevar a la migracin de la minora serbia de Kosovo. La comunidad internacional no tiene intenciones de reconocer un Kosovo independiente, ya que este hecho podra inspirar a los albaneses en Macedonia a intentar un acto similar de secesin. En vista de la posicin rgida, tanto de las autoridades serbias, como de los albano kosovares, un tercer actor debera iniciar y facilitar el proceso, que lleve a una solucin pacfica y permanente del conflicto. Esta funcin puede ser mejor ejercida por la comunidad internacional representada a travs de un enviado especial. El mismo debera utilizar todos los medios posibles para llevar a las partes a la mesa de negociacin, promover una solucin pacfica, y extender las garantas internacionales para cualquier acuerdo constitucional permanente. La comunidad internacional debera evitar asimismo el abocarse en una opcin especfica para un status permanente de Kosovo, dejando que las part es involucradas lleguen a un acuerdo. De esa forma, los Estados que monitorean las negociaciones, no deberan enlentecerlas, al promover la opcin que ellos consideran ms adecuada autonoma mejorada porque sta es refutada por ambas partes. Tanto Serbia como Kosovo deberan definir por s mismas el status permanente de Kosovo. La promocin internacional de cualquier opcin especfica, tambin estara yendo contra el principio de no precondicionamiento en las negociaciones. el papel de la comunidad internacional debera ser el de iniciar el proceso de paz, pero no de definir el resultado final: llegando entonces a proponer una solucin, pero no a imponerla. Las Naciones Unidas deberan imponer la inmediata e ntegra restauracin de los derechos civiles y humanos a los ciudadanos albano kosovares. Asimismo, una asistencia adicional debera ser proporcionada para ayudar al proceso de democratizacin en Serbia, fortaleciendo a la sociedad civil y mejorando la situacin social y econmica de Kosovo. Aunque la democratizacin y el fortalecimiento de la sociedad civil no resuelven la crisis en Kosovo directamente, constituyen una base indispensable para cualquier tipo de solucin. El apoyo internacional tanto financiero como poltico debera otorgarse a los medios independientes, al sector de las ONGs, a los proyectos acerca de los Derechos Humanos, y a las posturas polticas alternativas, para mejorar la comunicacin entre los diferentes grupos cvicos. Con objeto de mejorar la situacin social y econmica en Kosovo, se apela a la asistencia directa internacional, para dirigirla al sector educativo, de la salud, a las actividades generadoras de ingresos, y, como ya hemos expuesto en numerosas ocasiones a lo largo del presente trabajo, al restablecimiento de los Derechos Humanos.Bibliography:I Accuse! Critical remarks on the role of the European Union, NATO and the USA in Yugoslavia. DOLECEK, Rajko. Questions and Opinions Library. Praga, 1999. Derecho Internacional PblicoLIEVANO, Gaviria. Editorial Temis S.A. Santa Fe de Bogot, 1998. Despus del comunismo. Europa despus de la cada del muro. VENGOA, Hugo Fazio. Medelln, 1995. PrensaLa activit des tribunaux pnaux internationaux pour lex Yougoslavie (1995 1997) et pour le Ruanda (1994 1997) Annuaire Francais de Droit International. XLIII 1997 CNRS Editions, Pars ASCENSIO, Herv.La OTAN en el umbral del siglo XXIRevista de Poltica exterior. 1998SOLANA, Javier. La ayuda humanitaria y los Derechos Humanos: dos grandes desafos para la nueva generacin de Peace keeping Revista Diplomacia. Enero / Marzo 1998SALAZAR ALVAREZ, Juan CarlosNaciones Unidas y el mantenimiento de la PazPoltica Exterior. 65, XII Setiembre / Octubre 1998. SMITH SERRANO, AndrsIs Kosovo Real? Revista Foreign Affairs- Volume 78 No. 01January February 1999Un genocida plenamente escurridizo. Diario El Pas de Madrid, pp.: 3 4 EKAISER, Ernesto. 2 de mayo de 1999. Es indispensable para nosotros que la OTAN entre en Kosovo. Diario El Pas de Madrid, pp.: 7 Entrevista a Nexhmije Hoxha. Viuda del dictador albans. LOBO, Ramn. 2 de mayo de 1999. La solucin en Kosovo es un protectorado internacional. Diario El Pas de Madrid, pp.: 6WESTENDORP, Carlos. 9 de mayo de 1999. La OTAN, falta de liderazgo poltico, ha cometido errores. Diario El Pas de Madrid, pp.: 4Entrevista a John Chipman. Director del Instituto Internacional de Estudios Estratgicos. PRADOS, Luis. 16 de mayo de 1999. Democracia y Guerra. Diario el Pas de Madrid, pp.: 15 16. CEBRIN, Juan Luis. 23 de mayo de 1999. A la larga, no hay salida con Milosevic. Diario El Pas de Madrid, pp.: 5 6Entrevista a Janos Martonyi. Ministro de Asuntos exteriores de Hungra. COMAS, Jos. 23 de mayo de 1999. Tres cantos por Kosovo. Diario El Pas de Madrid, pp.: 11 13 KADAR, Ismal. 30 de mayo de 1999. International Law is dissolving the worlds borders. Diario Herald Tribune,pp.: 6ROSENBERG, Tina. Nueva York, 4 de julio de 1999. The attack. Time Magazine, pp.: 24 40. Nueva York, 5 de abril de 1999. Are ground troops the answer?. Time Magazine, pp.: 24 46. Nueva York, 12 de abril de 1999. The losers. Newsweek Magazine, pp.: 10 29. Hollywood, 12 de abril de 1999. Strike force. Time Magazine, pp.: 26 42. Nueva York, 19 de abril de 1999. Albright at war. Time Magazine, pp.: 24 40. Nueva York, 17 de mayo de 1999. Documentos de InternetSitio oficial del Movimiento Democrtico Serbio de Kosovo y Metohija. http://www.kosovo.com/Agencia de Informacin de Estados Unidoshttp://www.usia.gov/regional/eur/balkans/kosovoDepartamento de Estado de Estados Unidoshttp://www.state.gov/www/regions/eur/kosovo_hp.htmlPgina de informacin de Kosovohttp://www.decani.yunet.com/kip.htmlSito oficial del gobierno yugoslavohttp://www.gov.yu/kosovo/ Centro de informacin internacionalhttp://www.cnn.com/

Alexis de Tocquevilles Influence Essay Example For Students

Alexis de Tocqueville?s Influence Essay Alexis de Tocquevilles InfluenceAlexis de Tocquevilles observation of the American prison system brought out several interesting facts about America and how it governs itself. He talks of the danger of greed for money, the importance of forming associations, and the power of influence in town government. Although many of his observations have since changed, many of them bring about legitimate points about American government and society. In de Tocquevilles book Democracy in America, he is quoted as saying, I know of no other country where love of money has such a grip on mens hearts or where stronger scorn is expressed for the theory of permanent equality of property. In my opinion, he is pointing out that mans greed for money is what will possibly tear our society apart. This point has somewhat proven itself in the way that so many men, and now women, are willing to do almost anything to gain a dollar, even if it means using immoral and hurtful ways to do so. In talking about the importance of forming associations in America, de Tocqueville says, Americans of all ages, all stations of life, and all types of disposition are forever forming associationsIn democratic countries knowledge of how to combine is the mother of all other forms of knowledge; on its progress depends that of all the others. My belief is that he is saying that although forming associations in all aspects of life is a positive thing, the country w ill never be successful unless they learn to work together with one another in order to make everything work as one big system. I believe we have been successful as a country in doing this. We have learned that we must rely on one another in order to meet all of our needs to the best of our own abilities. de Tocqueville also points out how powerful personal influence can be in town government. Consider his quote, In towns it is impossible to prevent men from assembling, getting excited together and forming sudden passionate resolves. Towns are like great meeting houses with all the inhabitants as members. In them the people wield immense influence over their magistrates and often carry their desires into execution without intermediaries. He is pointing out that local government will almost always find ways to get around larger government because of the immediate interest of residents. In reality, it is the people that run the government because they have the ability to remove elected representatives if they arent getting things done the way the people want. The problem is, many people fail to realize this fact and just dont vote. The want to blame the problems of the country on the elected officials although they are the ones that did, or in some cases, did not, vote for the person wh o will make the voice of the people heard. I think overall, de Tocquevilles view of America was right on key with many of my personal views. I agree that greed for money is ruining America. I also agree on the importance of the combination of associations for maximum productivity as a nation. I believe his view on the power of local government is accurate. Obviously his observations about the differences in the roles of men and women have changed since his findings. Being that we as a country are still reviewing his findings, tells me that there is a lot of valuable information in his outside view of how we operate in America. RESOURCESwww.tocqueville.orgDemocracy in America by Alexis de Tocqueville